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      The Number of Pictograms About Side Effects on the Medication Package Influences Medication Risk Perception

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          Abstract

          Abstract: Introduction and aim: Pictograms can make taking medication safer. However, little is known about how pictograms on a medication package influence the subjective assessment of a medication. Methods: In this online study, 276 participants were presented with a fictitious package that contained 0 to 5 pictograms of possible side effects. Participants had to assess the probability of side effects occurring as well as the benefits and harms of the medication, both before and after consulting the package insert. Results: The number of pictograms (leveling out at 2 pictograms) influenced the assessment of the probability of side effects occurring. In addition, the assessment of this measure served as an anchor for assessing all subsequent measures (e.g., benefit). Although participants adjusted their measures after package insert consultation - these adjustments were insufficient (as expected from a normative probability account). Discussion and conclusion: Pictograms influence medication assessment, and humans can process only a limited number of pictograms.

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          Most cited references50

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          Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.

          This article described three heuristics that are employed in making judgements under uncertainty: (i) representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event A belongs to class or process B; (ii) availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development; and (iii) adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available. These heuristics are highly economical and usually effective, but they lead to systematic and predictable errors. A better understanding of these heuristics and of the biases to which they lead could improve judgements and decisions in situations of uncertainty.
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            The affect heuristic in judgments of risks and benefits

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              Economic impact of medication non-adherence by disease groups: a systematic review

              Objective To determine the economic impact of medication non-adherence across multiple disease groups. Design Systematic review. Evidence review A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed and Scopus in September 2017. Studies quantifying the cost of medication non-adherence in relation to economic impact were included. Relevant information was extracted and quality assessed using the Drummond checklist. Results Seventy-nine individual studies assessing the cost of medication non-adherence across 14 disease groups were included. Wide-scoping cost variations were reported, with lower levels of adherence generally associated with higher total costs. The annual adjusted disease-specific economic cost of non-adherence per person ranged from $949 to $44 190 (in 2015 US$). Costs attributed to ‘all causes’ non-adherence ranged from $5271 to $52 341. Medication possession ratio was the metric most used to calculate patient adherence, with varying cut-off points defining non-adherence. The main indicators used to measure the cost of non-adherence were total cost or total healthcare cost (83% of studies), pharmacy costs (70%), inpatient costs (46%), outpatient costs (50%), emergency department visit costs (27%), medical costs (29%) and hospitalisation costs (18%). Drummond quality assessment yielded 10 studies of high quality with all studies performing partial economic evaluations to varying extents. Conclusion Medication non-adherence places a significant cost burden on healthcare systems. Current research assessing the economic impact of medication non-adherence is limited and of varying quality, failing to provide adaptable data to influence health policy. The correlation between increased non-adherence and higher disease prevalence should be used to inform policymakers to help circumvent avoidable costs to the healthcare system. Differences in methods make the comparison among studies challenging and an accurate estimation of true magnitude of the cost impossible. Standardisation of the metric measures used to estimate medication non-adherence and development of a streamlined approach to quantify costs is required. PROSPERO registration number CRD42015027338.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
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                Journal
                European Journal of Psychology Open
                European Journal of Psychology Open
                Hogrefe Publishing Group
                2673-8627
                July 10 2024
                Affiliations
                [1 ]School of Applied Psychology, University of Applied Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland
                Article
                10.1024/2673-8627/a000058
                3784e604-01e8-466a-8ae2-8c1929d80bcb
                © 2024

                https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

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