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      Probiotic characteristics and zearalenone-removal ability of a Bacillus licheniformis strain

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          Abstract

          Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species, which is one of the main animal feed contaminants causing reproductive disorders in livestock. The aim of this study was to evaluate the probiotic characteristics and ZEN removal ability of a Bacillus licheniformis strain CK1. The probiotic properties, including acidic tolerance, bile salt tolerance, adherence capability, and anti-pathogenic activities of CK1 were evaluated. CK1 survived after incubation at pH 2.0 or 3.0 for 3 h, grew well in LB broth containing 0.3% oxgall, possessed adherence capability to Caco-2 cells, and inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes. The ZEN removal ability of CK1 was compared with a mineral mycotoxin-adsorbing agent, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), and a well-characterized biological mycotoxin-adsorbing agent, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG). At 37°C in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.0) containing 5 μg mL -1 of ZEN, the ZEN removal percentage of CK1 was 73.0%, which was significantly higher than that of HSCAS and LGG (45.9% and 48.4%, respectively). In the pH range of 2.5–8.0, CK1 removed up to 65% of ZEN. At temperatures between 4 and 42°C, CK1 removed more than 75% of ZEN. In the adsorption stability analysis, the amounts of ZEN removed by CK1 was over 30% even after five consecutive rounds of washing procedures. These findings demonstrated that CK1 displayed probiotic characteristics and removed ZEN effectively. Therefore, CK1 has a great potential for the development of feed additive to remove ZEN.

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          Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: an oestrogenic mycotoxin.

          Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin produced mainly by fungi belonging to the genus Fusarium in foods and feeds. It is frequently implicated in reproductive disorders of farm animals and occasionally in hyperoestrogenic syndromes in humans. There is evidence that ZEA and its metabolites possess oestrogenic activity in pigs, cattle and sheep. However, ZEA is of a relatively low acute toxicity after oral or interperitoneal administration in mice, rat and pig. The biotransformation for ZEA in animals involves the formation of two metabolites alpha-zearalenol (alpha-ZEA) and beta-zearalenol (beta-ZEA) which are subsequently conjugated with glucuronic acid. Moreover, ZEA has also been shown to be hepatotoxic, haematotoxic, immunotoxic and genotoxic. The exact mechanism of ZEA toxicity is not completely established. This paper gives an overview about the acute, subacute and chronic toxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity and immunotoxicity of ZEA and its metabolites. ZEA is commonly found on several foods and feeds in the temperate regions of Europe, Africa, Asia, America and Oceania. Recent data about the worldwide contamination of foods and feeds by ZEA are considered in this review. Due to economic losses engendered by ZEA and its impact on human and animal health, several strategies for detoxifying contaminated foods and feeds have been described in the literature including physical, chemical and biological process. Dietary intakes of ZEA were reported from few countries from the world. The mean dietary intakes for ZEA have been estimated at 20 ng/kgb.w./day for Canada, Denmark and Norway and at 30 ng/kgb.w./day for the USA. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for ZEA of 0.5 microg/kg of body weight.
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            Teichoic acids and related cell-wall glycopolymers in Gram-positive physiology and host interactions.

            Most Gram-positive bacteria incorporate membrane- or peptidoglycan-attached carbohydrate-based polymers into their cell envelopes. Such cell-wall glycopolymers (CWGs) often have highly variable structures and have crucial roles in protecting, connecting and controlling the major envelope constituents. Further important roles of CWGs in host-cell adhesion, inflammation and immune activation have also been described in recent years. Identifying and harnessing highly conserved or species-specific structural features of CWGs offers excellent opportunities for developing new antibiotics, vaccines and diagnostics for use in the fight against severe infectious diseases, such as sepsis, pneumonia, anthrax and tuberculosis.
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              Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed raw materials worldwide: long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia.

              During an 8-year period, 17 316 samples of feed and feed raw materials from all over the world were analysed for contamination with aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisins. Overall, 72% of the samples tested positive for at least one mycotoxin and 38% were found to be co-contaminated. Mycotoxin concentrations were generally low and the majority of the samples were compliant with the most stringent EU guidance values or maximum levels for mycotoxins in feed. However, in their present state these regulations do not address co-contamination and associated risks. Long-term trends are difficult to establish as strong yearly variations were observed regarding mycotoxin prevalence and contamination levels. In some cases unusual weather conditions can be linked with high observed mycotoxin loads. An exception to this rule is South-East Asia, where a steady increase of aflatoxin prevalence has been observed. The percentage of aflatoxin-positive samples in this region rose from 32% in 2005 to 71% in 2011. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Methodology
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Methodology
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                11 April 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 4
                : e0194866
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
                [2 ] Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
                [3 ] Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
                LAAS-CNRS, FRANCE
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2152-7536
                Article
                PONE-D-17-39472
                10.1371/journal.pone.0194866
                5895015
                29641608
                cecf6a43-4ff8-4d2e-b159-a3a862408eb4
                © 2018 Hsu et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 6 November 2017
                : 12 March 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 6, Tables: 2, Pages: 18
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100004663, Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan;
                Award ID: MOST 105-2313-B-002-042-MY3
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100004663, Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan;
                Award ID: MOST 106-3114-B-002-005
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100007841, Council of Agriculture;
                Award ID: 105AS-2.3.3-AD-U1
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Council of Agriculture (TW)
                Award ID: 106AS-2.3.3-AD-U1
                Award Recipient :
                This research was conducted using funds provided by National Taiwan University, grant MOST 105-2313-B-002-042-MY3 and MOST 106-3114-B-002-005 from the Ministry of Science and Technology, and grants 105AS-2.3.3-AD-U1 and 106AS-2.3.3-AD-U1 from the Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, Republic of China. No additional external funding was received for this study. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
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