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      COVID-19-related stigma and its sociodemographic correlates: a comparative study

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          Abstract

          Background

          Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is closely associated with physical and mental health problems; however, little is known about the severity of stigma caused by COVID-19 among its survivors. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare differences in stigma experiences of COVID-19 survivors versus healthy controls after the COVID-19 outbreak peak in China.

          Methods

          This cross-sectional study comprised 154 COVID-19 survivors and 194 healthy controls recruited through consecutive and convenience sampling methods, respectively. COVID-19 related stigma was measured by the Social Impact Scale (SIS). Stigma differences between the two groups were compared with analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and a generalized linear model (GLM) was used to identify independent correlates of COVID-19-related stigma in this study.

          Results

          Compared with healthy controls, COVID-19 survivors reported more overall stigma ( F (1,347) = 60.82, p < 0.001), and stigma in domains of social rejection ( F (1,347) = 56.54, p < 0.001), financial insecurity ( F (1,347) = 19.96, p < 0.001), internalized shame ( F (1,347) = 71.40, p < 0.001) and social isolation ( F (1,347) = 34.73, p < 0.001). Status as a COVID-19 survivor, having family members infected with COVID-19, being married, economic loss during the COVID-19 pandemic, and depressive symptoms were positively associated with higher overall stigma levels (all p values < 0.05).

          Conclusion

          COVID-19-related stigma is commonly experienced among COVID-19 survivors even though the outbreak has been well-contained in China. Routine assessment of stigma experiences should be conducted on COVID-19 survivors and appropriate psychological assistance, public education, and anti-stigma campaigns and policies should be enforced to reduce stigma within this vulnerable subpopulation.

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          Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis

          Nader Salari, Amin Hosseinian-Far, Rostam Jalali … (2020)
          Background The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on public mental health. Therefore, monitoring and oversight of the population mental health during crises such as a panedmic is an immediate priority. The aim of this study is to analyze the existing research works and findings in relation to the prevalence of stress, anxiety and depression in the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic. Method In this systematic review and meta-analysis, articles that have focused on stress and anxiety prevalence among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic were searched in the Science Direct, Embase, Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science (ISI) and Google Scholar databases, without a lower time limit and until May 2020. In order to perform a meta-analysis of the collected studies, the random effects model was used, and the heterogeneity of studies was investigated using the I2 index. Moreover. data analysis was conducted using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) software. Results The prevalence of stress in 5 studies with a total sample size of 9074 is obtained as 29.6% (95% confidence limit: 24.3–35.4), the prevalence of anxiety in 17 studies with a sample size of 63,439 as 31.9% (95% confidence interval: 27.5–36.7), and the prevalence of depression in 14 studies with a sample size of 44,531 people as 33.7% (95% confidence interval: 27.5–40.6). Conclusion COVID-19 not only causes physical health concerns but also results in a number of psychological disorders. The spread of the new coronavirus can impact the mental health of people in different communities. Thus, it is essential to preserve the mental health of individuals and to develop psychological interventions that can improve the mental health of vulnerable groups during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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            Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: the PHQ primary care study. Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders. Patient Health Questionnaire.

            R L Spitzer, K Kroenke, J. Williams (1999)
            The Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders (PRIME-MD) was developed as a screening instrument but its administration time has limited its clinical usefulness. To determine if the self-administered PRIME-MD Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ) has validity and utility for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care comparable to the original clinician-administered PRIME-MD. Criterion standard study undertaken between May 1997 and November 1998. Eight primary care clinics in the United States. Of a total of 3000 adult patients (selected by site-specific methods to avoid sampling bias) assessed by 62 primary care physicians (21 general internal medicine, 41 family practice), 585 patients had an interview with a mental health professional within 48 hours of completing the PHQ. Patient Health Questionnaire diagnoses compared with independent diagnoses made by mental health professionals; functional status measures; disability days; health care use; and treatment/referral decisions. A total of 825 (28%) of the 3000 individuals and 170 (29%) of the 585 had a PHQ diagnosis. There was good agreement between PHQ diagnoses and those of independent mental health professionals (for the diagnosis of any 1 or more PHQ disorder, kappa = 0.65; overall accuracy, 85%; sensitivity, 75%; specificity, 90%), similar to the original PRIME-MD. Patients with PHQ diagnoses had more functional impairment, disability days, and health care use than did patients without PHQ diagnoses (for all group main effects, P<.001). The average time required of the physician to review the PHQ was far less than to administer the original PRIME-MD (<3 minutes for 85% vs 16% of the cases). Although 80% of the physicians reported that routine use of the PHQ would be useful, new management actions were initiated or planned for only 117 (32%) of the 363 patients with 1 or more PHQ diagnoses not previously recognized. Our study suggests that the PHQ has diagnostic validity comparable to the original clinician-administered PRIME-MD, and is more efficient to use.
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              Psychosocial impact of COVID-19

              Souvik Dubey, Payel Biswas, Ritwik Ghosh … (2020)
              Background Along with its high infectivity and fatality rates, the 2019 Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) has caused universal psychosocial impact by causing mass hysteria, economic burden and financial losses. Mass fear of COVID-19, termed as “coronaphobia”, has generated a plethora of psychiatric manifestations across the different strata of the society. So, this review has been undertaken to define psychosocial impact of COVID-19. Methods Pubmed and GoogleScholar are searched with the following key terms- “COVID-19”, “SARS-CoV2”, “Pandemic”, “Psychology”, “Psychosocial”, “Psychitry”, “marginalized”, “telemedicine”, “mental health”, “quarantine”, “infodemic”, “social media” and” “internet”. Few news paper reports related to COVID-19 and psychosocial impacts have also been added as per context. Results Disease itself multitude by forced quarantine to combat COVID-19 applied by nationwide lockdowns can produce acute panic, anxiety, obsessive behaviors, hoarding, paranoia, and depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the long run. These have been fueled by an “infodemic” spread via different platforms social media. Outbursts of racism, stigmatization, and xenophobia against particular communities are also being widely reported. Nevertheless, frontline healthcare workers are at higher-risk of contracting the disease as well as experiencing adverse psychological outcomes in form of burnout, anxiety, fear of transmitting infection, feeling of incompatibility, depression, increased substance-dependence, and PTSD. Community-based mitigation programs to combat COVID-19 will disrupt children's usual lifestyle and may cause florid mental distress. The psychosocial aspects of older people, their caregivers, psychiatric patients and marginalized communities are affected by this pandemic in different ways and need special attention. Conclusion For better dealing with these psychosocial issues of different strata of the society, psychosocial crisis prevention and intervention models should be urgently developed by the government, health care personnel and other stakeholders. Apt application of internet services, technology and social media to curb both pandemic and infodemic needs to be instigated. Psychosocial preparedness by setting up mental organizations specific for future pandemics is certainly necessary.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Guo-Qing Jiang: 1159424975@qq.com
                Yu-Tao Xiang: xyutly@gmail.com
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Global Health
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Global Health
                Title: Globalization and Health
                Publisher: BioMed Central (London )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1744-8603
                Publication date (Electronic): 7 May 2021
                Publication date PMC-release: 7 May 2021
                Publication date Collection: 2021
                Volume: 17
                Electronic Location Identifier: 54
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.452293.b, Chongqing Mental Health Center, ; Chongqing, China
                [2 ]GRID grid.437123.0, ISNI 0000 0004 1794 8068, Unit of Psychiatry, Department of Public Health and Medicinal Administration, & Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, , University of Macau, ; Macao SAR, China
                [3 ]GRID grid.437123.0, ISNI 0000 0004 1794 8068, Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, , University of Macau, ; Macao SAR, China
                [4 ]GRID grid.437123.0, ISNI 0000 0004 1794 8068, Institute of Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, , University of Macau, ; Macao SAR, China
                [5 ]GRID grid.24696.3f, ISNI 0000 0004 0369 153X, The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders Beijing Anding Hospital & the Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, School of Mental Health, , Capital Medical University, ; Beijing, China
                [6 ]GRID grid.16890.36, ISNI 0000 0004 1764 6123, School of Nursing, , Hong Kong Polytechnic University, ; Hong Kong SAR, China
                [7 ]GRID grid.437123.0, ISNI 0000 0004 1794 8068, Department of Psychology, , University of Macau, ; Taipa, Macau SAR, China
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3989-9386
                Article
                Publisher ID: 705
                DOI: 10.1186/s12992-021-00705-4
                PMC ID: 8103123
                PubMed ID: 33962651
                SO-VID: c47304ea-b7c1-4964-86b8-ee3e0ab08159
                Copyright © © The Author(s) 2021
                License:

                Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

                History
                Date received : 17 December 2020
                Date accepted : 21 April 2021
                Funding
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100013076, National Major Science and Technology Projects of China;
                Award ID: 2018ZX09201-014
                Funded by: Beijing Municipal Science & Technology Commission
                Award ID: No. Z181100001518005
                Funded by: University of Macau
                Award ID: MYRG2019-00066-FHS
                Award Recipient :
                Categories
                Subject: Research
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © The Author(s) 2021

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Health & Social care
                Keywords: covid-19 survivors,stigma
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Health & Social care
                Keywords: covid-19 survivors, stigma

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