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      Overview of Candida albicans and Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection Agents and their Biomolecular Mechanisms in Promoting Oral Cancer in Pediatric Patients

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          Abstract

          Oral carcinoma represents one of the most common malignancies worldwide. Oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs) account over 90% of all oral malignant tumors and are characterized by high mortality in the advanced stages. Early diagnosis is often a challenge for its ambiguous appearance in early stages. Mucosal infection by the human papillomavirus (HPV) is responsible for a growing number of malignancies, particularly cervical cancer and oropharyngeal carcinomas. In addition, Candida albicans ( C. albicans), which is the principal fungi involved in the oral cancer development, may induce carcinogenesis through several mechanisms, mainly promoting inflammation. Medical knowledge and research on adolescent/pediatric patients' management and prevention are in continuous evolution. Besides, microbiota can play an important role in maintaining oral health and therefore all human health. The aim of this review is to evaluate epidemiological and pathophysiological characteristics of the several biochemical pathways involved during HPV and C. albicans infections in pediatric dentistry.

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          The human microbiome project.

          Peter J. Turnbaugh, Ruth E Ley, Micah Hamady … (2007)
          A strategy to understand the microbial components of the human genetic and metabolic landscape and how they contribute to normal physiology and predisposition to disease.
          Article 0 comments Cited 869 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            The spindle-assembly checkpoint in space and time.

            Andrea Musacchio, Edward Salmon (2007)
            In eukaryotes, the spindle-assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a ubiquitous safety device that ensures the fidelity of chromosome segregation in mitosis. The SAC prevents chromosome mis-segregation and aneuploidy, and its dysfunction is implicated in tumorigenesis. Recent molecular analyses have begun to shed light on the complex interaction of the checkpoint proteins with kinetochores--structures that mediate the binding of spindle microtubules to chromosomes in mitosis. These studies are finally starting to reveal the mechanisms of checkpoint activation and silencing during mitotic progression.
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              Targeting the Raf-MEK-ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade for the treatment of cancer.

              P. J. Roberts, C. J. Der (2007)
              Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are key signaling pathways involved in the regulation of normal cell proliferation, survival and differentiation. Aberrant regulation of MAPK cascades contribute to cancer and other human diseases. In particular, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) MAPK pathway has been the subject of intense research scrutiny leading to the development of pharmacologic inhibitors for the treatment of cancer. ERK is a downstream component of an evolutionarily conserved signaling module that is activated by the Raf serine/threonine kinases. Raf activates the MAPK/ERK kinase (MEK)1/2 dual-specificity protein kinases, which then activate ERK1/2. The mutational activation of Raf in human cancers supports the important role of this pathway in human oncogenesis. Additionally, the Raf-MEK-ERK pathway is a key downstream effector of the Ras small GTPase, the most frequently mutated oncogene in human cancers. Finally, Ras is a key downstream effector of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which is mutationally activated and/or overexpressed in a wide variety of human cancers. ERK activation also promotes upregulated expression of EGFR ligands, promoting an autocrine growth loop critical for tumor growth. Thus, the EGFR-Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signaling network has been the subject of intense research and pharmaceutical scrutiny to identify novel target-based approaches for cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize the current status of the different approaches and targets that are under evaluation and development for the therapeutic intervention of this key signaling pathway in human disease.
              Article 0 comments Cited 250 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Andrea Ballini:
                ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8758-1415
                Stefania Cantore:
                ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9521-2521
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Biomed Res Int
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Biomed Res Int
                Journal ID (publisher-id): BMRI
                Title: BioMed Research International
                Publisher: Hindawi
                ISSN (Print): 2314-6133
                ISSN (Electronic): 2314-6141
                Publication date Collection: 2021
                Publication date (Electronic): 2 November 2021
                Volume: 2021
                Electronic Location Identifier: 7312611
                Affiliations
                1Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Università Degli Studi di Foggia, Foggia 71122, Italy
                2School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari 70124, Italy
                3Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Naples 80138, Italy
                4Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari 70124, Italy
                5Polypheno Academic Spin Off, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari 70124, Italy
                6Interdepartmental Research Center for Pre-Latin, Latin and Oriental Rights and Culture Studies (CEDICLO), University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari 70124, Italy
                7Department of Emergency and Urgency, National Poisoning Centre, Riuniti University Hospital of Foggia, Foggia 71122, Italy
                8Section of Ear Nose and Throat (ENT), Department of Surgical Sciences, Dentistry, Gynecology and Pediatric, University of Verona, Verona 37126, Italy
                9Azienda Sanitaria Locale BAT, Trani 76123, Italy
                10Department of Oral Sciences, Maxillofacial Surgery Unit, Roma 00161, Italy
                11Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, Microbiology and Virology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari 70124, Italy
                Author notes

                Academic Editor: Iole Vozza

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4633-4893
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8758-1415
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9521-2521
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4176-3939
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3527-7483
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6951-8452
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5086-4390
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2658-270X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0949-3457
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0842-7351
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7654-482X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5671-8124
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2756-3212
                Article
                DOI: 10.1155/2021/7312611
                PMC ID: 8577934
                SO-VID: 9277b73c-e245-47af-b127-4eb706128b7d
                Copyright © Copyright © 2021 Lorenzo Lo Muzio et al.
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 14 September 2021
                Date accepted : 16 October 2021
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

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