Burden of Cause-Specific Mortality Associated With PM _2.5 Air Pollution in the United States

Key Points

Question

What are the causes of death associated with fine particulate matter (PM _2.5) air pollution?

Findings

In this cohort study of more than 4.5 million US veterans, 9 causes of death were associated with PM _2.5 air pollution: cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, dementia, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, lung cancer, and pneumonia. The attributable burden of death associated with PM _2.5 was disproportionally borne by black individuals and socioeconomically disadvantaged communities; 99% of the burden was associated with PM _2.5 levels below standards set by the US Environmental Protection Agency.

Meaning

This study adds to known causes of death associated with PM _2.5 by identifying 3 new causes (death due to chronic kidney disease, hypertension, and dementia); racial and socioeconomic disparities in the burden were also evident.

Abstract

This cohort study identifies causes of death associated with ambient fine particulate matter (PM _2.5) air pollution in the United States and estimates the burden of death for each cause.

Abstract

Importance

Ambient fine particulate matter (PM _2.5) air pollution is associated with increased risk of several causes of death. However, epidemiologic evidence suggests that current knowledge does not comprehensively capture all causes of death associated with PM _2.5 exposure.

Objective

To systematically identify causes of death associated with PM _2.5 pollution and estimate the burden of death for each cause in the United States.

Design, Setting, and Participants

In a cohort study of US veterans followed up between 2006 and 2016, ensemble modeling was used to identify and characterize morphology of the association between PM _2.5 and causes of death. Burden of death associated with PM _2.5 exposure in the contiguous United States and for each state was then estimated by application of estimated risk functions to county-level PM _2.5 estimates from the US Environmental Protection Agency and cause-specific death rate data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Nonlinear exposure-response functions of the association between PM _2.5 and causes of death and burden of death associated with PM _2.5.

Exposures

Annual mean PM _2.5 levels.

Results

A cohort of 4 522 160 US veterans (4 243 462 [93.8%] male; median [interquartile range] age, 64.1 [55.7-75.5] years; 3 702 942 [82.0%] white, 667 550 [14.8%] black, and 145 593 [3.2%] other race) was followed up for a median (interquartile range) of 10.0 (6.8-10.2) years. In the contiguous United States, PM _2.5 exposure was associated with excess burden of death due to cardiovascular disease (56 070.1 deaths [95% uncertainty interval {UI}, 51 940.2-60 318.3 deaths]), cerebrovascular disease (40 466.1 deaths [95% UI, 21 770.1-46 487.9 deaths]), chronic kidney disease (7175.2 deaths [95% UI, 5910.2-8371.9 deaths]), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (645.7 deaths [95% UI, 300.2-2490.9 deaths]), dementia (19 851.5 deaths [95% UI, 14 420.6-31 621.4 deaths]), type 2 diabetes (501.3 deaths [95% UI, 447.5-561.1 deaths]), hypertension (30 696.9 deaths [95% UI, 27 518.1-33 881.9 deaths]), lung cancer (17 545.3 deaths [95% UI, 15 055.3-20 464.5 deaths]), and pneumonia (8854.9 deaths [95% UI, 7696.2-10 710.6 deaths]). Burden exhibited substantial geographic variation. Estimated burden of death due to nonaccidental causes was 197 905.1 deaths (95% UI, 183 463.3-213 644.9 deaths); mean age-standardized death rates (per 100 000) due to nonaccidental causes were higher among black individuals (55.2 [95% UI, 50.5-60.6]) than nonblack individuals (51.0 [95% UI, 46.4-56.1]) and higher among those living in counties with high (65.3 [95% UI, 56.2-75.4]) vs low (46.1 [95% UI, 42.3-50.4]) socioeconomic deprivation; 99.0% of the burden of death due to nonaccidental causes was associated with PM _2.5 levels below standards set by the US Environmental Protection Agency.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study, 9 causes of death were associated with PM _2.5 exposure. The burden of death associated with PM _2.5 was disproportionally borne by black individuals and socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. Effort toward cleaner air might reduce the burden of PM _2.5-associated deaths.