Maternal Social Loneliness Detection Using Passive Sensing Through Continuous Monitoring in Everyday Settings: Longitudinal Study

Abstract

Background

Maternal loneliness is associated with adverse physical and mental health outcomes for both the mother and her child. Detecting maternal loneliness noninvasively through wearable devices and passive sensing provides opportunities to prevent or reduce the impact of loneliness on the health and well-being of the mother and her child.

Objective

The aim of this study is to use objective health data collected passively by a wearable device to predict maternal (social) loneliness during pregnancy and the postpartum period and identify the important objective physiological parameters in loneliness detection.

Methods

We conducted a longitudinal study using smartwatches to continuously collect physiological data from 31 women during pregnancy and the postpartum period. The participants completed the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) loneliness questionnaire in gestational week 36 and again at 12 weeks post partum. Responses to this questionnaire and background information of the participants were collected through our customized cross-platform mobile app. We leveraged participants’ smartwatch data from the 7 days before and the day of their completion of the UCLA questionnaire for loneliness prediction. We categorized the loneliness scores from the UCLA questionnaire as loneliness (scores≥12) and nonloneliness (scores<12). We developed decision tree and gradient-boosting models to predict loneliness. We evaluated the models by using leave-one-participant-out cross-validation. Moreover, we discussed the importance of extracted health parameters in our models for loneliness prediction.

Results

The gradient boosting and decision tree models predicted maternal social loneliness with weighted F ₁-scores of 0.897 and 0.872, respectively. Our results also show that loneliness is highly associated with activity intensity and activity distribution during the day. In addition, resting heart rate (HR) and resting HR variability (HRV) were correlated with loneliness.

Conclusions

Our results show the potential benefit and feasibility of using passive sensing with a smartwatch to predict maternal loneliness. Our developed machine learning models achieved a high F ₁-score for loneliness prediction. We also show that intensity of activity, activity pattern, and resting HR and HRV are good predictors of loneliness. These results indicate the intervention opportunities made available by wearable devices and predictive models to improve maternal well-being through early detection of loneliness.