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      Improvements in executive functions by domain-specific cognitive training in youth elite soccer players

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          Abstract

          This study examined the impact of sport-specific cognitive training (CT) on executive functions (EFs) in youth soccer players. Thirty-one athletes (13–15 years) participated, 13 in the intervention group (IG) and 18 in the control group (CG). The IG underwent an 8-week soccer-focused CT program, while the CG maintained regular training. The assessments included working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results revealed no significant improvements in EFs in the IG compared to those in the CG. Both groups showed enhanced cognitive flexibility, possibly due to general cognitive development or learning effects. The study suggested that an 8-week sport-specific CT may not enhance EFs in young soccer players, potentially due to a ceiling effect in highly skilled athletes. These findings should be considered when designing cognitive training programs for athletes, and future research could explore the optimal duration of such programs.

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          Executive Functions

          Adele Diamond (2013)
          Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control—resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking “outside the box,” seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far.
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            Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task

            Barbara Eriksen, Charles W. Eriksen (1974)
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              Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure.

              Naomi Friedman, Akira Miyake (2017)
              Executive functions (EFs) are high-level cognitive processes, often associated with the frontal lobes, that control lower level processes in the service of goal-directed behavior. They include abilities such as response inhibition, interference control, working memory updating, and set shifting. EFs show a general pattern of shared but distinct functions, a pattern described as "unity and diversity". We review studies of EF unity and diversity at the behavioral and genetic levels, focusing on studies of normal individual differences and what they reveal about the functional organization of these cognitive abilities. In particular, we review evidence that across multiple ages and populations, commonly studied EFs (a) are robustly correlated but separable when measured with latent variables; (b) are not the same as general intelligence or g; (c) are highly heritable at the latent level and seemingly also highly polygenic; and (d) activate both common and specific neural areas and can be linked to individual differences in neural activation, volume, and connectivity. We highlight how considering individual differences at the behavioral and neural levels can add considerable insight to the investigation of the functional organization of the brain, and conclude with some key points about individual differences to consider when interpreting neuropsychological patterns of dissociation.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Florian Heilmann:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1530-734X
                florian.heilmann@sport.uni-halle.de
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): BMC Psychol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): BMC Psychol
                Title: BMC Psychology
                Publisher: BioMed Central (London )
                ISSN (Electronic): 2050-7283
                Publication date (Electronic): 2 October 2024
                Publication date PMC-release: 2 October 2024
                Publication date Collection: 2024
                Volume: 12
                Electronic Location Identifier: 528
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Movement Science Lab, Institute for Sport Science, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, ( https://ror.org/05gqaka33) von-Seckendorff-Platz 2, Halle (Saale), 06120 Germany
                [2 ]Institute for Sport Psychology and Sport Pedagogy, Leipzig, Germany
                [3 ]GRID grid.7468.d, ISNI 0000 0001 2248 7639, Department of Sport Psychology, Institute for Sport Science, , Humboldt-University of Berlin, ; Berlin, Germany
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1530-734X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6100-5807
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0603-6552
                Article
                Publisher ID: 2017
                DOI: 10.1186/s40359-024-02017-9
                PMC ID: 11448064
                PubMed ID: 39358785
                SO-VID: 6f826ec0-30c6-4d24-bd25-840a370d4c6b
                Copyright © © The Author(s) 2024
                License:

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                Date received : 6 May 2024
                Date accepted : 19 September 2024
                Funding
                Funded by: Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg (1043)
                Open Access :

                Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

                Categories
                Subject: Research
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2024

                Keywords: executive functions,cognitive training,soccer,youth athletes
                Data availability:
                Keywords: executive functions, cognitive training, soccer, youth athletes

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