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      Free DNA – new potential analyte in clinical laboratory diagnostics?

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          Abstract

          The existence of cell free DNA in the human circulatory system has been known since the 1950s, however, intensive research in this area has been conducted for the last ten years. This review paper brings a short overview of the existing literature concerning the cell free DNA research in various clinical fields and pathological states and considers the application possibilities of this new analyte in clinical laboratory diagnostics.

          At the moment, cell free DNA is most widely used for the purpose of non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of fetal sex or fetal RhD status. The recent discovery of epigenetic changes in placental/fetal DNA and the detection of fetal/placental-specific RNAs have made it possible to use this technology in all pregnancies irrespective of the gender of the fetus. With the application of new techniques such as next generation sequencing, digital PCR and mass spectrometry, it is now possible to detect very small amounts of specific DNA in the presence of excess of other nonspecific nucleic acids. Second most probable application is in oncology, where detection and monitoring of tumors is now possible by the detection of tumor-derived nucleic acids. Third promising field for near future implementation of this analyte is transplantation medicine, where free DNA level could serve as a marker of transplant rejection.

          Before any further utilization of this new biomarker, pre-analytical and analytical aspects of free DNA analysis remain to be standardized. In the field of noninvasive prenatal diagnosis, important ethical, legal and social questions remain to be discussed.

          Sažetak

          Postojanje slobodne DNA (engl. cell free DNA) u cirkulaciji čovjeka poznato je još od pedesetih godina prošlog stoljeća, međutim, intenzivnija istraživanja u ovom području provode se tek posljednjih desetak godina. Ovaj pregledni članak donosi kratak osvrt na dosadašnja istraživanja slobodne DNA u različitim kliničkim područjima i patološkim stanjima te razmatra mogućnosti primjene novog potencijalnog analita u kliničkoj laboratorijskoj dijagnostici.

          Analiza slobodne DNA najčešće se primjenjuje u području neinvazivne prenatalne dijagnostike u svrhu određivanja spola ili RhD statusa ploda. Posljednja otkrića epigenetskih promjena DNA posteljice/ploda i detekcija RNA specifi čne za posteljicu/plod, omogućile su primjenu ove tehnologije kod svih trudnoća, neovisno o spolu ploda. Primjenom novih tehnika kao što su sekvencioniranje druge generacije, digitalna lančana reakcija polimerazom i masena spektrometrija, moguće je otkriti već i vrlo male količine specifi čne DNA u prisutnosti velike količine preostalih nespecifičnih nukleinskih kiselina.

          Druga najvjerojatnija mogućnost primjene ovog analita je u području onkologije gdje je otkrivanje i praćenje tumora omogućeno otkrićem nukleinskih kiselina porijeklom iz stanica tumora.

          Treće potencijalno područje primjene ovog analita jest transplantacijska medicina gdje bi koncentracija slobodne DNA mogla biti biljeg odbacivanja transplantata.

          Prije bilo koje daljnje primjene ovog biološkog biljega, potrebno je standardizirati prijeanalitičke i analitičke postupke u analizi slobodne DNA. U području neinvazivne prenatalne dijagnostike pojavit će se važna etička, pravna i sociološka pitanja na koja će trebati odgovoriti.

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          Most cited references110

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          Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase.

          A thermostable DNA polymerase was used in an in vitro DNA amplification procedure, the polymerase chain reaction. The enzyme, isolated from Thermus aquaticus, greatly simplifies the procedure and, by enabling the amplification reaction to be performed at higher temperatures, significantly improves the specificity, yield, sensitivity, and length of products that can be amplified. Single-copy genomic sequences were amplified by a factor of more than 10 million with very high specificity, and DNA segments up to 2000 base pairs were readily amplified. In addition, the method was used to amplify and detect a target DNA molecule present only once in a sample of 10(5) cells.
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            Noninvasive diagnosis of fetal aneuploidy by shotgun sequencing DNA from maternal blood.

            We directly sequenced cell-free DNA with high-throughput shotgun sequencing technology from plasma of pregnant women, obtaining, on average, 5 million sequence tags per patient sample. This enabled us to measure the over- and underrepresentation of chromosomes from an aneuploid fetus. The sequencing approach is polymorphism-independent and therefore universally applicable for the noninvasive detection of fetal aneuploidy. Using this method, we successfully identified all nine cases of trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), two cases of trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), and one case of trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) in a cohort of 18 normal and aneuploid pregnancies; trisomy was detected at gestational ages as early as the 14th week. Direct sequencing also allowed us to study the characteristics of cell-free plasma DNA, and we found evidence that this DNA is enriched for sequences from nucleosomes.
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              DNA sequencing of maternal plasma to detect Down syndrome: an international clinical validation study.

              Prenatal screening for Down syndrome has improved, but the number of resulting invasive diagnostic procedures remains problematic. Measurement of circulating cell-free DNA in maternal plasma might offer improvement. A blinded, nested case-control study was designed within a cohort of 4664 pregnancies at high risk for Down syndrome. Fetal karyotyping was compared with an internally validated, laboratory-developed test based on next-generation sequencing in 212 Down syndrome and 1484 matched euploid pregnancies. None had been previously tested. Primary testing occurred at a CLIA-certified commercial laboratory, with cross validation by a CLIA-certified university laboratory. Down syndrome detection rate was 98.6% (209/212), the false-positive rate was 0.20% (3/1471), and the testing failed in 13 pregnancies (0.8%); all were euploid. Before unblinding, the primary testing laboratory also reported multiple alternative interpretations. Adjusting chromosome 21 counts for guanine cytosine base content had the largest impact on improving performance. When applied to high-risk pregnancies, measuring maternal plasma DNA detects nearly all cases of Down syndrome at a very low false-positive rate. This method can substantially reduce the need for invasive diagnostic procedures and attendant procedure-related fetal losses. Although implementation issues need to be addressed, the evidence supports introducing this testing on a clinical basis.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Biochem Med (Zagreb)
                Biochem Med (Zagreb)
                Biochemia Medica
                Croatian Society of Medical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine
                1330-0962
                1846-7482
                February 2012
                15 February 2012
                : 22
                : 1
                : 24-38
                Affiliations
                Cytogenetics laboratory, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University J. J. Strossmayer, Osijek, Croatia
                Author notes
                Corresponding author: jwagner@ 123456mefos.hr
                Article
                biochem-med-22-1-24-4
                4062320
                22384517
                6ba228ea-8242-4dcd-9282-6eadad375e65
                © Copyright by Croatian Society of Medical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine.

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 22 November 2011
                : 04 January 2012
                Categories
                Review

                cell free dna,cell free fetal dna,plasma dna,free dna,non-invasive prenatal diagnosis,clinical laboratory diagnosis,sex determination analysis

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