Potential use of biodegradable polymers for facemask filter inserts produced using electrospinning methods

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Abstract

The elevated use of petroleum‐based polymers to manufacture single‐use disposable face masks is a serious environmental concern that has detrimental effects on the ecosystem. The research on using biodegradable facemasks is promising to reduce the environmental impacts of the single‐use non‐degradable facemask. A reusable cloth‐based facemask with effective filtration could benefit society. Many studies suggest polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), and polylactic acid (PLA) as viable biopolymers for facemask filter layer fabrication. In this work, an electrospun filter layer inserts with PVA, PBAT, and PLA polymers were produced by depositing electrospun nanofibers on non‐woven cotton layers followed by conventional sealing. The fabricated filter inserts were used in cloth‐based facemasks and were tested for filtration efficiencies and breathability. PVA facemask insert showed the best performance with 66.7% filtration efficiency and breathability of 0.66 m bar, whereas the lowest filtration efficiency was found for PBAT electrospun filter medium. The relation between filter membrane morphology and facemask performance indicates that a smaller diameter and uniform morphology results in better filtration and breathability of the facemask filter inserts.

Highlights

Petroleum‐based facemasks harm ecosystems.
Biodegradable facemasks reduce environmental impact.
Electrospun nanofibers of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polybutylene adipate terephthalate, and polylactic acid on cotton.
PVA insert showed 66.7% filtration and 0.66 m bar breathability.
Smaller, uniform fibers enhance filtration and breathability.

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Most cited references 42

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Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1

Neeltje van Doremalen, Trenton Bushmaker, Dylan H Morris … (2021)

To the Editor: A novel human coronavirus that is now named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (formerly called HCoV-19) emerged in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and is now causing a pandemic. 1 We analyzed the aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 and compared it with SARS-CoV-1, the most closely related human coronavirus. 2 We evaluated the stability of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 in aerosols and on various surfaces and estimated their decay rates using a Bayesian regression model (see the Methods section in the Supplementary Appendix, available with the full text of this letter at NEJM.org). SARS-CoV-2 nCoV-WA1-2020 (MN985325.1) and SARS-CoV-1 Tor2 (AY274119.3) were the strains used. Aerosols (<5 μm) containing SARS-CoV-2 (105.25 50% tissue-culture infectious dose [TCID50] per milliliter) or SARS-CoV-1 (106.75-7.00 TCID50 per milliliter) were generated with the use of a three-jet Collison nebulizer and fed into a Goldberg drum to create an aerosolized environment. The inoculum resulted in cycle-threshold values between 20 and 22, similar to those observed in samples obtained from the upper and lower respiratory tract in humans. Our data consisted of 10 experimental conditions involving two viruses (SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1) in five environmental conditions (aerosols, plastic, stainless steel, copper, and cardboard). All experimental measurements are reported as means across three replicates. SARS-CoV-2 remained viable in aerosols throughout the duration of our experiment (3 hours), with a reduction in infectious titer from 103.5 to 102.7 TCID50 per liter of air. This reduction was similar to that observed with SARS-CoV-1, from 104.3 to 103.5 TCID50 per milliliter (Figure 1A). SARS-CoV-2 was more stable on plastic and stainless steel than on copper and cardboard, and viable virus was detected up to 72 hours after application to these surfaces (Figure 1A), although the virus titer was greatly reduced (from 103.7 to 100.6 TCID50 per milliliter of medium after 72 hours on plastic and from 103.7 to 100.6 TCID50 per milliliter after 48 hours on stainless steel). The stability kinetics of SARS-CoV-1 were similar (from 103.4 to 100.7 TCID50 per milliliter after 72 hours on plastic and from 103.6 to 100.6 TCID50 per milliliter after 48 hours on stainless steel). On copper, no viable SARS-CoV-2 was measured after 4 hours and no viable SARS-CoV-1 was measured after 8 hours. On cardboard, no viable SARS-CoV-2 was measured after 24 hours and no viable SARS-CoV-1 was measured after 8 hours (Figure 1A). Both viruses had an exponential decay in virus titer across all experimental conditions, as indicated by a linear decrease in the log10TCID50 per liter of air or milliliter of medium over time (Figure 1B). The half-lives of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 were similar in aerosols, with median estimates of approximately 1.1 to 1.2 hours and 95% credible intervals of 0.64 to 2.64 for SARS-CoV-2 and 0.78 to 2.43 for SARS-CoV-1 (Figure 1C, and Table S1 in the Supplementary Appendix). The half-lives of the two viruses were also similar on copper. On cardboard, the half-life of SARS-CoV-2 was longer than that of SARS-CoV-1. The longest viability of both viruses was on stainless steel and plastic; the estimated median half-life of SARS-CoV-2 was approximately 5.6 hours on stainless steel and 6.8 hours on plastic (Figure 1C). Estimated differences in the half-lives of the two viruses were small except for those on cardboard (Figure 1C). Individual replicate data were noticeably “noisier” (i.e., there was more variation in the experiment, resulting in a larger standard error) for cardboard than for other surfaces (Fig. S1 through S5), so we advise caution in interpreting this result. We found that the stability of SARS-CoV-2 was similar to that of SARS-CoV-1 under the experimental circumstances tested. This indicates that differences in the epidemiologic characteristics of these viruses probably arise from other factors, including high viral loads in the upper respiratory tract and the potential for persons infected with SARS-CoV-2 to shed and transmit the virus while asymptomatic. 3,4 Our results indicate that aerosol and fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is plausible, since the virus can remain viable and infectious in aerosols for hours and on surfaces up to days (depending on the inoculum shed). These findings echo those with SARS-CoV-1, in which these forms of transmission were associated with nosocomial spread and super-spreading events, 5 and they provide information for pandemic mitigation efforts.

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Aerosol and surface contamination of SARS-CoV-2 observed in quarantine and isolation care

Joshua L. Santarpia, Danielle N Rivera, Vicki Herrera … (2020)

The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) originated in Wuhan, China in late 2019, and its resulting coronavirus disease, COVID-19, was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020. The rapid global spread of COVID-19 represents perhaps the most significant public health emergency in a century. As the pandemic progressed, a continued paucity of evidence on routes of SARS-CoV-2 transmission has resulted in shifting infection prevention and control guidelines between classically-defined airborne and droplet precautions. During the initial isolation of 13 individuals with COVID-19 at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, we collected air and surface samples to examine viral shedding from isolated individuals. We detected viral contamination among all samples, supporting the use of airborne isolation precautions when caring for COVID-19 patients.

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Challenges and strategies for effective plastic waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic

Kumar Raja Vanapalli, Hari Bhakta Sharma, Ved Ranjan … (2020)

The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic has enhanced the complexities of plastic waste management. Our improved, hyper-hygienic way of life in the fear of transmission has conveniently shifted our behavioral patterns like the use of PPE (Personal protective equipment), increased demand for plastic-packaged food and groceries, and the use of disposable utensils. The inadequacies and inefficiencies of our current waste management system to deal with our increased dependence on plastic could aggravate its mismanagement and leakage into the environment, thus triggering an environmental crisis. Mandating scientific sterilization and the use of sealed bags for safe disposal of contaminated plastic wastes should be an immediate priority to reduce the risk of transmission to sanitation workers. Investments in circular technologies like feedstock recycling along with improving the infrastructure and environmental viability of existing techniques could be the key to dealing with the plastic waste fluxes during a crisis. Transition towards environmentally friendly materials like bioplastics and harboring new sustainable technologies would be crucial to fighting future pandemics. Although the rollbacks and relaxation of single-use plastic bans may be temporary, their likely implications on the consumer perception could hinder our long-term goals of transitioning towards a circular economy. Likewise, any delay in building international willingness and participation to curb any form of pollution through summits and agendas may also delay its implementation. Reduction in plastic pollution and inclusive, sustainable plastic waste management can be achieved by restructuring our policies to instill individual behavioral as well as social, institutional changes. Incentivizing measures that encourage circularity and sustainable practices, public-private investments in research and infrastructure would help in bringing the aforementioned changes. Individual responsibility, corporate action, and government policy are all necessary to keep us from transiting from one disaster to another.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Junaid Khan: (View ORCID Profile)

Mariatti Jaafar: (View ORCID Profile)

Journal

Title: Polymer Engineering & Science

Abbreviated Title: Polymer Engineering & Sci

Publisher: Wiley

ISSN (Print): 0032-3888

ISSN (Electronic): 1548-2634

Publication date (Electronic): August 03 2023

Affiliations

[1 ] School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, USM Engineering Campus Nibong Tebal Penang Malaysia

[2 ] National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Malaysia Bandar Baru Bangi Selangor Malaysia

Article

DOI: 10.1002/pen.26451

SO-VID: 68b0902e-6e08-4418-9871-a1524e50d40e

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http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor

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Potential use of biodegradable polymers for facemask filter inserts produced using electrospinning methods

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Electrospinning for biomedical applications

Most cited references 42

Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1

Aerosol and surface contamination of SARS-CoV-2 observed in quarantine and isolation care

Challenges and strategies for effective plastic waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic

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