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      Prevalence of Current PTSD Symptoms Among a Sample of Black Individuals Aged 15 to 40 in Canada: The Major Role of Everyday Racial Discrimination, Racial Microaggresions, and Internalized Racism Translated title: Prévalence des symptômes courants du TSPT dans un échantillon de personnes noires âgées de 15 à 40 ans au Canada : le rôle majeur de la discrimination raciale quotidienne, des micro-agressions raciales et du racisme internalisé

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          Abstract

          Objective

          Most Black individuals in Canada report having experienced racial discrimination. Although previous studies have shown that there is a strong relationship between racial discrimination and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), no studies in Canada have documented this association among Black individuals. The present study documents (1) the prevalence of PTSD among Black individuals using data from the Black Communities Mental Health project and (2) risk factors associated with PTSD, including racial microaggressions, everyday racial discrimination, and internalized racism.

          Method

          A total of 860 participants (75.6% of women) aged 15 to 40 years old ( M = 24.96, SD = 6.29) completed questionnaires assessing PTSD, experience of traumatic events, racial microaggressions, everyday racial discrimination, and internalized racism.

          Results

          Findings showed that 95.1% of participants reported exposure to at least one traumatic event during their lifetime. In total, 67.11% of participants reported probable PTSD with no significant difference between men and women (68.2% and 67.8%, χ 2 = 0.132, p = 0.72). Participants born in Canada were more likely to experience significant PTSD symptoms, compared to those born abroad (70.92% and 53.14% , χ 2 = 19.69, p < 0.001). A multivariable linear regression model of PTSD symptoms was computed using sociodemographic variables and exposure to traumatic events as independent variables, which explained 25.9% of the variance. In addition to these variables, a second model included racial microaggressions, everyday racial microaggressions, and internalized racism, which explained 51.8% of the variance. The model showed that traumatic events ( b = 0.6; p = 0.02), racial microaggressions ( b = 0.5; p < 0.001), everyday discrimination ( b = 0.2; p = 0.03) and internalized racism ( b = 0.5; p < 0.001) were positively associated with PTSD symptoms.

          Conclusions

          This article highlights the detrimental consequences of racial discrimination against Black people in Canada. Prevention and mental health programs aimed at mitigating its consequences on the lives of Black people and other racialized populations must be implemented.

          Abrégé

          Objectif

          La plupart des personnes noires au Canada ont rapporté avoir vécu de la discrimination raciale. Bien que des études précédentes aient montré qu’il y avait une forte relation entre la discrimination raciale et le trouble de stress post-traumatique (TSPT), aucune étude au Canada n’a documenté cette association chez les personnes noires. La présente étude documente 1) la prévalence du TSPT chez les personnes noires à l’aide des données du projet de santé mentale dans les communautés noires; et 2) les facteurs de risque associés au TSPT, notamment les micro-agressions raciales, la discrimination raciale quotidienne, et le racisme internalisé.

          Méthode

          Un total de 860 participants (75,6% de femmes) âgés de 15 à 40 ans (M = 24,96, ET = 6,29) ont rempli les questionnaires évaluant le trouble de stress post-traumatique, l’expérience d’événements traumatiques, les micro-agressions raciales, la discrimination raciale quotidienne et le racisme internalisé.

          Résultats

          Les résultats ont montré que 95,1% des participants déclaraient une exposition à au moins un événement traumatique de durée de vie. 67,11% des participants ont déclaré un TSPT probable sans différence significative entre hommes et femmes (68,2% et 67,8%, χ 2 = ,132, p = 0,72). Les participants nés au Canada étaient plus susceptibles de ressentir des symptômes significatifs du TSPT, comparativement à ceux nés à l’étranger (70,92% et 53,14% , χ 2 = 19,69, p <,001). Un premier modèle de régression linéaire multi-variable des symptômes de TSPT a été calculé à l’aide des variables sociodémographiques et de l’exposition à des événements traumatiques comme variables indépendantes, ce qui a expliqué 25,9% de la variance. Outre ces variables, le deuxième modèle incluait les micro-agressions raciales, les micro-agressions raciales quotidiennes, et le racisme internalisé. Il expliquait 51,8% de la variance. Il révélait que les événements traumatiques (b = 0,6; p = ,02), les micro-agressions raciales (b = ,5; p <,001), la discrimination quotidienne (b = 0,2; p = 0,03) et le racisme internalisé (b = 0,5; p <,001) étaient positivement associés aux symptômes du TSPT.

          Conclusions

          Cet article présente les conséquences néfastes de la discrimination raciale pour les personnes noires au Canada. Les programmes de prévention et de santé mentale visant à atténuer les conséquences sur la vie des personnes noires et d’autres personnes racialisées doivent être mis en œuvre.

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          Most cited references45

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          Multivariate Data Analysis

          For over 30 years, this text has provided students with the information they need to understand and apply multivariate data analysis. This text provides an applications-oriented introduction to multivariate analysis for the non-statistician. By reducing heavy statistical research into fundamental concepts, the text explains to students how to understand and make use of the results of specific statistical techniques. In this revision, the organization of the chapters has been greatly simplified. New chapters have been added on structural equations modeling, and all sections have been updated to reflect advances in technology, capability, and mathematical techniques. :Pearson New International Edition.
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            The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation.

            The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL) is a widely used DSM-correspondent self-report measure of PTSD symptoms. The PCL was recently revised to reflect DSM-5 changes to the PTSD criteria. In this article, the authors describe the development and initial psychometric evaluation of the PCL for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Psychometric properties of the PCL-5 were examined in 2 studies involving trauma-exposed college students. In Study 1 (N = 278), PCL-5 scores exhibited strong internal consistency (α = .94), test-retest reliability (r = .82), and convergent (rs = .74 to .85) and discriminant (rs = .31 to .60) validity. In addition, confirmatory factor analyses indicated adequate fit with the DSM-5 4-factor model, χ2 (164) = 455.83, p < .001, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = .07, root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) = .08, comparative fit index (CFI) = .86, and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = .84, and superior fit with recently proposed 6-factor, χ2 (164) = 318.37, p < .001, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .06, CFI = .92, and TLI = .90, and 7-factor, χ2 (164) = 291.32, p < .001, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .06, CFI = .93, and TLI = .91, models. In Study 2 (N = 558), PCL-5 scores demonstrated similarly strong reliability and validity. Overall, results indicate that the PCL-5 is a psychometrically sound measure of PTSD symptoms. Implications for use of the PCL-5 in a variety of assessment contexts are discussed.
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              Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health: Socio-economic Status, Stress and Discrimination.

              This article examines the extent to which racial differences in socio-economic status (SES), social class and acute and chronic indicators of perceived discrimination, as well as general measures of stress can account for black-white differences in self-reported measures of physical and mental health. The observed racial differences in health were markedly reduced when adjusted for education and especially income. However, both perceived discrimination and more traditional measures of stress are related to health and play an incremental role in accounting for differences between the races in health status. These findings underscore the need for research efforts to identify the complex ways in which economic and non-economic forms of discrimination relate to each other and combine with socio-economic position and other risk factors and resources to affect health.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Can J Psychiatry
                Can J Psychiatry
                CPA
                spcpa
                Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie
                SAGE Publications (Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA )
                0706-7437
                1497-0015
                28 September 2022
                March 2023
                28 September 2022
                : 68
                : 3
                : 178-186
                Affiliations
                [1 ]School of Psychology, Ringgold 6363, universityUniversity of Ottawa; , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
                [2 ]Interdisciplinary Centre for Black Health, Ringgold 6363, universityUniversity of Ottawa; , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
                [3 ]University of Ottawa Research Chair on Black Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
                [4 ]Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
                Author notes
                [*]Jude Mary Cénat, School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, 136 Jean-Jacques-Lussier, 4017, Vanier Hall, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada. Email: jcenat@ 123456uottawa.ca
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3628-6904
                Article
                10.1177_07067437221128462
                10.1177/07067437221128462
                9974651
                36172639
                4aed5887-e529-4fc9-9f60-51df0d32851a
                © The Author(s) 2022

                This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page ( https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

                History
                Funding
                Funded by: Public Health Agency of Canada, FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100011094;
                Award ID: 1920-HQ-000053
                Categories
                Original Research
                Custom metadata
                ts19

                ptsd,racial discrimination,black individuals,canada
                ptsd, racial discrimination, black individuals, canada

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