The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism

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Abstract

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is categorized by the U.S. Surgeon General as a major public health problem. VTE is relatively common and associated with reduced survival and substantial health-care costs, and recurs frequently. VTE is a complex (multifactorial) disease, involving interactions between acquired or inherited predispositions to thrombosis and VTE risk factors, including increasing patient age and obesity, hospitalization for surgery or acute illness, nursing-home confinement, active cancer, trauma or fracture, immobility or leg paresis, superficial vein thrombosis, and, in women, pregnancy and puerperium, oral contraception, and hormone therapy. Although independent VTE risk factors and predictors of VTE recurrence have been identified, and effective primary and secondary prophylaxis is available, the occurrence of VTE seems to be relatively constant, or even increasing.

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Most cited references 175

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Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition).

William H Geerts, David Bergqvist, Graham F. Pineo … (2008)

This article discusses the prevention of venous thromboembolism (VTE) and is part of the Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Grade 1 recommendations are strong and indicate that the benefits do or do not outweigh risks, burden, and costs. Grade 2 suggestions imply that individual patient values may lead to different choices (for a full discussion of the grading, see the "Grades of Recommendation" chapter by Guyatt et al). Among the key recommendations in this chapter are the following: we recommend that every hospital develop a formal strategy that addresses the prevention of VTE (Grade 1A). We recommend against the use of aspirin alone as thromboprophylaxis for any patient group (Grade 1A), and we recommend that mechanical methods of thromboprophylaxis be used primarily for patients at high bleeding risk (Grade 1A) or possibly as an adjunct to anticoagulant thromboprophylaxis (Grade 2A). For patients undergoing major general surgery, we recommend thromboprophylaxis with a low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), low-dose unfractionated heparin (LDUH), or fondaparinux (each Grade 1A). We recommend routine thromboprophylaxis for all patients undergoing major gynecologic surgery or major, open urologic procedures (Grade 1A for both groups), with LMWH, LDUH, fondaparinux, or intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC). For patients undergoing elective hip or knee arthroplasty, we recommend one of the following three anticoagulant agents: LMWH, fondaparinux, or a vitamin K antagonist (VKA); international normalized ratio (INR) target, 2.5; range, 2.0 to 3.0 (each Grade 1A). For patients undergoing hip fracture surgery (HFS), we recommend the routine use of fondaparinux (Grade 1A), LMWH (Grade 1B), a VKA (target INR, 2.5; range, 2.0 to 3.0) [Grade 1B], or LDUH (Grade 1B). We recommend that patients undergoing hip or knee arthroplasty or HFS receive thromboprophylaxis for a minimum of 10 days (Grade 1A); for hip arthroplasty and HFS, we recommend continuing thromboprophylaxis > 10 days and up to 35 days (Grade 1A). We recommend that all major trauma and all spinal cord injury (SCI) patients receive thromboprophylaxis (Grade 1A). In patients admitted to hospital with an acute medical illness, we recommend thromboprophylaxis with LMWH, LDUH, or fondaparinux (each Grade 1A). We recommend that, on admission to the ICU, all patients be assessed for their risk of VTE, and that most receive thromboprophylaxis (Grade 1A).

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Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER)

S Z Goldhaber, L Visani, M. De Rosa (1999)

Pulmonary embolism (PE) remains poorly understood. Rates of clinical outcomes such as death and recurrence vary widely among trials. We therefore established the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER), with the aim of identifying factors associated with death. 2454 consecutive eligible patients with acute PE were registered from 52 hospitals in seven countries in Europe and North America. The primary outcome measure was all-cause mortality at 3 months. The prognostic effect of baseline factors on survival was assessed with multivariate analyses. 2110 (86.0%) patients had PE proven by necropsy, high-probability lung scan, pulmonary angiography, or venous ultrasonography plus high clinical suspicion; ICOPER accepted without independent review diagnoses and interpretation of imaging provided by participating centres; 3-month follow-up was completed in 98.0% of patients. The overall crude mortality rate at 3 months was 17.4% (426 of 2454 deaths, including 52 patients lost to follow-up): 179 of 397 (45.1%) deaths were ascribed to PE and 70 of 397 (17.6%) to cancer, and no information on the cause of death was available for 29 patients. After exclusion of 61 patients in whom PE was first discovered at necropsy, the mortality rate at 3 months was 15.3% (365 of 2393 deaths). On multiple-regression modelling, age over 70 years (hazard ratio 1.6 [95% CI 1.1-2.3]), cancer (2.3 [1.5-3.5]), congestive heart failure (2.4 [1.5-3.7]), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (1.8 [1.2-2.7]), systolic arterial hypotension (2.9 [1.7-5.0]), tachypnoea (2.0 [1.2-3.2]), and right-ventricular hypokinesis on echocardiography (2.0 [1.3-2.9]) were identified as significant prognostic factors. PE remains an important clinical problem with a high mortality rate. Data from ICOPER provide rates and highlight adverse prognostic categories that will help in planning of future trials of high-risk PE patients.

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Incidence and mortality of venous thrombosis: a population-based study.

I Naess, S C Christiansen, P. Romundstad … (2007)

Estimates of the incidence of venous thrombosis (VT) vary, and data on mortality are limited. We estimated the incidence and mortality of a first VT event in a general population. From the residents of Nord-Trøndelag county in Norway aged 20 years and older (n = 94 194), we identified all cases with an objectively verified diagnosis of VT that occurred between 1995 and 2001. Patients and diagnosis characteristics were retrieved from medical records. Seven hundred and forty patients were identified with a first diagnosis of VT during 516,405 person-years of follow-up. The incidence rate for all first VT events was 1.43 per 1000 person-years [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.33-1.54], that for deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) was 0.93 per 1000 person-years (95% CI: 0.85-1.02), and that for pulmonary embolism (PE) was 0.50 per 1000 person-years (95% CI: 0.44-0.56). The incidence rates increased exponentially with age, and were slightly higher in women than in men. The 30-day case-fatality rate was higher in patients with PE than in those with DVT [9.7% vs. 4.6%, risk ratio 2.1 (95% CI: 1.2-3.7)]; it was also higher in patients with cancer than in patients without cancer [19.1% vs. 3.6%, risk ratio 3.8 (95% CI 1.6-9.2)]. The risk of dying was highest in the first months subsequent to the VT, after which it gradually approached the mortality rate in the general population. This study provides estimates of incidence and mortality of a first VT event in the general population.

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Author and article information

Contributors

John A. Heit: (507)284-4634 , heit.john@mayo.edu

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Thromb Thrombolysis

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J. Thromb. Thrombolysis

Title: Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis

Publisher: Springer US (New York )

ISSN (Print): 0929-5305

ISSN (Electronic): 1573-742X

Publication date (Electronic): 16 January 2016

Publication date PMC-release: 16 January 2016

Publication date (Print): 2016

Volume: 41

Pages: 3-14

Affiliations

[ ]Division of Cardiovascular Diseases (JAH), Mayo Clinic, Hematology Research-Stabile 660, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905 USA

[ ]Division of Cardiology (FAS), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON USA

[ ]Division of General Internal Medicine (RHW), University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA USA

Article

Publisher ID: 1311

DOI: 10.1007/s11239-015-1311-6

PMC ID: 4715842

PubMed ID: 26780736

SO-VID: 2a1c674d-f6ef-4e4a-a5e6-94090fe8d7b5

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Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Hematology

Keywords: venous thromboembolism,pulmonary embolism,deep vein thrombosis,thrombophlebitis,epidemiology

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Hematology

Keywords: venous thromboembolism, pulmonary embolism, deep vein thrombosis, thrombophlebitis, epidemiology

The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism

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Most cited references 175

Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition).

Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER)

Incidence and mortality of venous thrombosis: a population-based study.

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