Counting the cost of vulture decline—An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India

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Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan.

J. Oaks, Martin Gilbert, Munir Z. Virani … (2004)

The Oriental white-backed vulture (OWBV; Gyps bengalensis) was once one of the most common raptors in the Indian subcontinent. A population decline of >95%, starting in the 1990s, was first noted at Keoladeo National Park, India. Since then, catastrophic declines, also involving Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris, have continued to be reported across the subcontinent. Consequently these vultures are now listed as critically endangered by BirdLife International. In 2000, the Peregrine Fund initiated its Asian Vulture Crisis Project with the Ornithological Society of Pakistan, establishing study sites at 16 OWBV colonies in the Kasur, Khanewal and Muzaffargarh-Layyah Districts of Pakistan to measure mortality at over 2,400 active nest sites. Between 2000 and 2003, high annual adult and subadult mortality (5-86%) and resulting population declines (34-95%) (ref. 5 and M.G., manuscript in preparation) were associated with renal failure and visceral gout. Here, we provide results that directly correlate residues of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac with renal failure. Diclofenac residues and renal disease were reproduced experimentally in OWBVs by direct oral exposure and through feeding vultures diclofenac-treated livestock. We propose that residues of veterinary diclofenac are responsible for the OWBV decline.

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Assessing the burden of human rabies in India: results of a national multi-center epidemiological survey.

K. Ravikumar, Gangaboraiah, Girish N Rao … (2006)

Human rabies has been endemic in India since time immemorial, and the true incidence of the disease and nationwide epidemiological factors have never been studied. The main objectives of the present study were to estimate the annual incidence of human rabies in India based on a community survey and to describe its salient epidemiological features. The Association for Prevention and Control of Rabies in India (APCRI) conducted a national multi-center survey with the help of 21 medical schools during the period February-August 2003. This community-based survey covered a representative population of 10.8 million in mainland India. Hospital-based data were also obtained from the 22 infectious diseases hospitals. A separate survey of the islands of Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep, reported to be free from rabies, was also undertaken. The annual incidence of human rabies was estimated to be 17,137 (95% CI 14,109-20,165). Based on expert group advice, an additional 20% was added to this to include paralytic/atypical forms of rabies, providing an estimate of 20,565 or about 2 per 100000 population. The majority of the victims were male, adult, from rural areas, and unvaccinated. The main animals responsible for bites were dogs (96.2%), most of which were stray. The most common bite sites were the extremities. The disease incubation period ranged from two weeks to six months. Hydrophobia was the predominant clinical feature. Many of the victims had resorted to indigenous forms of treatment following animal bite, and only about half of them had sought hospital attention. Approximately 10% of these patients had taken a partial course of either Semple or a cell culture vaccine. The islands of Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep were found to be free of rabies. Human rabies continues to be endemic in India except for the islands of Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. Dogs continue to be the principal reservoir. The disease is taking its toll on adult men and children, the majority from rural areas, due to lack of awareness about proper post-exposure immunization. The keys to success in the further reduction of rabies in India lies in improved coverage with modern rabies vaccines, canine rabies control, and intensifying public education about the disease.

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Obligate vertebrate scavengers must be large soaring fliers.

Graeme D Ruxton, David C Houston (2004)

Among extant vertebrates, only the 23 species of vulture are obligate scavengers. We use an energetic modelling approach to explore the constraints imposed by an obligate scavenging lifestyle, and to ask whether obligate scavengers must always be avian and generally large-bodied users of soaring flight. Our model found that aerial scavengers always out-competed postulated terrestrial ones, mainly because flight allows area to be searched much more rapidly for carrion. Soaring was favoured over flapping flight because the reduction in flight speed (and so rate of area search) was more than compensated for by the decrease in the costs of transport. Large individual size is selected for if carrion is available in large packages, when obligate scavenger feed only infrequently, and so must be able to survive on body reserves in the periods between discovering food falls. In the absence of avian radiation, an obligate terrestrial scavenger seems energetically feasible, but we argue that such a beast is unlikely to have evolved. In birds, in order to become exclusive scavengers, vultures have needed to specialize for efficient soaring flight as a low energy form of travel, and as a consequence they have lost the agility needed to kill prey. In mammals, however, no comparable trade-off occurs. So for terrestrial carnivores there is probably no strong selection pressure towards being an exclusive scavenger. Indeed it will perhaps always be more advantageous to retain the flexibility of obtaining food by either predation or scavenging.